How Control Of Tirumala Tirupati Temple Went Into The Hands Of The Colonial Government

The serene town of Tirupati (Tiru — Lakshmi, Pati — Husband) which lies at the foothills of the magnificent Tirumala hills has sanctified geography. It is after all the home of the much revered Balaji, the Adi Varaha, Sri Venkateshwara, Srinivasa, his titles, numerous.

It is the great Vaishanav belief that this sacred part of Mount Meru, with each peak representing one of the 7 hoods of Adishesha (the King of the Nagas upon whom Lord Vishnu rests), is where the great protector descended to foster humanity’s salvation. 

Something changes in the atmosphere as one makes the climb up the Sheshadri peak. The steps are often painted with streaks of yellow and red- arashina and kumkuma by obeisance-paying devotees in order to fulfill vows made, as the chants of ‘Govinda, Govinda, Venkataramana Govinda!’ echo continuously. Sri Hari, perched on top of the peak, beckons them,  promising (as his name suggests) to steal the sins of his devotees, cleansing their souls, allowing them to embark  afresh on the path of Dharma. 

The Big, Fat, Indian, Wedding 

Thinappa’s appeal is universal, both the rich, the poor, the young, the old, the bourgeoisie and proletariat are omnipresent at his doorstep, eagerly waiting for glimpses of him to quench their spiritual thirst. Apart from their own theological inclinations, perhaps the devotees feel a sense of obligation to their old Venkanna. He, after all, is still trapped in more a 1000 year debt to Kubera (the god of wealth), from whom he borrowed 1.4 million Ramamudra coins to fund his lavish wedding to Sri Lakshmi.

Perhaps that is why huge amounts are donated every year to the Devasthanam, to be more precise- a mammoth 1,1031 kgs of gold worth approximately Rs 773 crores in 2023. Is this enough to pay back the mighty Kubera? Well, as one Mr Abhinit Kulkarni on linkedin calculated- taking 300 A.D as the year of disbursement, the total outstanding amount on a loan principal of Rs 100, borrowed around 1700 years ago comes around - 2.32*10^72! So the simple answer? - No, the accumulated interest itself  would outweigh the principal!

The wealth is merely a small reflection of the affection and reverence Tirumala’s worshipers hold towards him. The coffers of the temple have never been empty, the devotees have never let Sripathi default, not even once from centuries. As a consequence the Devasthanam apart from being of immense religious significance has  always possessed great riches and has thus been under direct control of great and many successive dynasties.

To begin with- the Tirumala range is said to have first found mention in the Rig Veda as a sacred site. Later in the Tamil rendition of the legend of Prince Rama- the Kamban Ramayana, it is described as home to the 4 vedas, the place where the Supreme Truth was revealed. Likewise, The Sri Venkatachala Mahatmya contains stories from the Mahapuranas that narrate the divinity of Balaji. The holy region, also popularly known as Sri Kshetra is mentioned as Aruva Nadu, the land of the Aruvalars in early Tamil sources. However the specific origins of the geography still remain an enigma.

Though the Tirupati Balaji temple itself was said to have been formally built by Raja Thondaman of the Thondaman dynasty which ruled the Pattukottai region around the 8th century. The earliest mention of the shrine can be found in Tolkappiyam, a Tamil literary work of the 2nd century B.C. Chakravarthi Tondaiman, a devotee is said to have discovered the “self manifestation ” swayambhu of the lord at the Seshachalam hills of the Eastern Ghats.

What followed was the temple shrine being taken over by the vogue dynasty of the century - first the Mauryans, then the Satavahanas and later the Pallavas. Though King Samudragupta of the glorious Gupta empire provided a brief respite from the Pallava reign, it eventually did fall back to the Telugu chieftains of the Pallavas, Pandyas and Yadavarayas and the Tamil Cholas. Each contributing to the rehabilitation of the temple. 

Interestingly, in the 12th century when Islamic invaders raided and plundered the south of India,  Tirupati also served as refuge for 41 long years for the Ustavar of another renowned deity -Sri Ranganatha of Srirangam.

However, the greatest contribution to the glory of the temple came from the Vijayanagar Empire. All the three dynasties - the Sangamas, the Saluvas and the Thuluvas were great devotees. Starting from Devaraya II who took on the pecuniary burden towards the revival of Veda Parayanam ( recitation of the vedas in the presence of Sri Venkata) to Mangideva Maharaja who sponsored gold for the Vimana and the Shikara of the shrine to his own grandson Saluva Narasimha Deva, who emerged as perhaps the most ardent devotee among the kings and honored Tirupati by installing an idol of Lakshmi Narasimha to the renowned Thuluva King- Krishnadevaraya who built the magnificent Rajagopuram and ensured the temple’s sustenance by bestowing upon it extensive tracts of land. 

More importantly, Krishanadevaraya’s contribution lies in pioneering a system of administration and rituals that still serve as the foundation of present day rituals including the practice of Dhana Annaprasadam for the devotees, tribunals (festivals), nada vanams (flower gardens), Ramanuja kutams ( feeding houses) 

The Rise of Islam

The temple is often referred to as the Kaliyug Vaikuntha, a terminology which might seem like an oxymoron as it is indeed a blessing to find the solace of Vaikuntha in an era fraught with greed and gluttony.  Between the 14th and the 16th century when  Hindu reign made way for Islamic rule, the sacred geography fell under the dominion of Muslim dynasties from the Delhi Sultanate to the Bahmani Sultanate. This period witnessed frequent looting of the temple and plundering of its resources. However, in testament to the Hindu spirit, despite the odds, local rulers continued to be patrons and wealth was shifted to more secure locations while rituals were conducted in discretion. 

The 18th century brought with it a renaissance, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his descendants restored the temple, revived rituals and made generous contributions. In fact in the 1740’s  Raghoji Bhonsle ,a Maratha leader emerged victorious over the Nawab of Karnataka and paid reverence by donating generous gifts to the temple. The Nawab’s son also contributed Rs. 50,000 to Balaji’s abode as a gesture of peace towards the Marathas.

A New Debt 

However, the repose was brief and ultimately the last Muslim ruler who controlled the temple was the Nawab of Arcot. During the Nawab's reign, temple revenues were diverted to fund government operations, often through land alienation or by appointing hereditary temple servants as government officials. Meanwhile post the Anglo-Mysore Wars, the British found themselves to be the overlords of the South. 

They decided to install Muhammad Ali Khan Wallajah as the Nawab of Arcot. His subsequent debts to the East India Company led to the assignment of temple revenues to the company as collateral. This practice continued even though the temples were nominally under the Nawab's control. 

Here is a brief timeline of the British take over of the temple the followed:

1789: The East India Company established the Board of Revenue and took control of temple management from the Nawabs of Arcot. Their goal was securing a fixed annual income for the government (circar).

1801: The company annexed Arcot and directly administered the Tirupati temples, seeking temple revenue.

1803: The Chittoor Collector (Tirupati district) submitted "Statton's Report" detailing temple finances and operations, showing the full account of the institution, together with schedules, pujas, expenses, and extent of lands etc. Quite similar to reports submitted  on other temples like the Jagannath Puri. 

1817: Reacting to complaints and  concerns of mismanagement and misappropriation in the Tirumala and Tirupati temple, the British East India Company enacted Regulation VII of 1817.  Consequently, the Board interfered in almost all aspects of the administration.

1821: The British created "Bruce's Code" to control temple  staff and management.

Bruce Codes 

In 1821, post the acceptance of Statton's report, Bruce, the then collector of Chitoor devised a set of 42 provisions that were to act as guidance for the administration of Tirupati Devasthanams. 

The codes make for a fascinating read. For instance, it was noted that food offerings were made to the deity six times a day. In order to sponsor the same, the erstwhile rules made provisions for the donation of revenue of 432 villages surrounding Tirupati.

However, the British East India Company's  involvement and micromanagement at Tirumala-Tirupati faced criticism from the Court of Directors in England. They objected to company officials participating in Hindu religious rituals and idolatry. As a result, in the early 1840s, during Queen Victoria’s reign the Company was compelled to relinquish control.

The Handover to the Mahants

There were several factions of Brahmins who held sway within the precincts of the temple. In 1843, The British finally decided to hand over control to the charge of the then Mahant Sri Sevadas of Sri Hathiramji Matha of Tirupati. While the overall administration of the temple by successive Mahants was satisfactory, they either failed to claim the tasdik amount from the government or failed to credit t

the same to temples. Thus a permanent and valuable source of income was lost forever. Moreover there were constant charges made by various vested interests within the temple of misappropriation and misapplication of funds by the Mahants which led to a series of civil and criminal cases that were dragged on all the way up to the Courts of Appeal. Ultimately, the costs of which had to be borne out the temple funds themselves. The rule of the Mahants continued till 1933.

Government Takes Over, Again

The Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Bill was introduced in the Madras Legislative Council as a private measure to provide for better administration. The Bill received the Governor and Governor General’s assent and became law in 1927. On coming to force the arrangement made by the local government in 1843 plus the scheme settled by the Privy Council in Appeal No. 6 of 1906, together with the rules framed under the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act 1926, ceased to exist.

The Act created a corporate body with perpetual succession called the Tirumala-Tirupati Devasthanams Committee. It was to manage the properties and affairs of the temples and arrange for the conduct of daily worship. It was to consist of seven members who were to be appointed by the local government and the Mahant, if willing to serve, could be a member. Every member was appointed for a term of three years. A member could resign from office by writing to the Commissioner. A non-Hindu, a deaf or mute person or a person of unsound mind could not serve as a member. 

The local government was empowered to declare a position vacant if it felt that the Mahant or any other member failed in performing his duties or was unable to attend office for three months. It could also dissolve or reconstitute the entire committee. The committee could elect a President amongst itself and matters were decided by majority vote. The president was given the casting vote in instances of tie. 

The Act also provided an advisory council consisting of Jiyyengars, the archakas, the Acharyapurusas and other mirasidars for advising the committee on religious affairs. Another council was constituted to advise the committee on how to manage the temple’s estates.

The local government also had to appoint a Commissioner for a term of three years who had to be Hindu. He was to serve as a whole time officer of the Devasthanam and was to be paid from the temple funds. The Commissioner under the supervision of the Board was responsible for the secular administration of the temples. 

Opposition to Takeover

The Bill was opposed by various Sanatanists. A public meeting presided by His Holiness Goswami Brijrantanlalji Maharaj of Surat was held on 26 October, 1932. His Holiness explained to the enthusiastic audience the danger ahead to the sacredness of the Hindu shrines of India by legislative interference and stated - ‘it is a deliberate outrage on our religious liberty’.

Advocate A. Srinivasacari sent a memorial the Governor-General stating that the Bill was ultra-vires of the powers of the legislation and the rights of the Mahant were being trespassed.

Although the act was established for better temple management, its scope was limited, with the framers appearing more focused on the secular administration of funds than on respecting their origins or the intended purposes of the donations.

Further Evolution

The 1933 Act was superseded by the Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowment Act of 1951. This Act placed the administration of the temple in the hands of a board of trustees consisting of five members appointed by the State Government. This Act was again replaced by the Andhra Pradesh Charitable and Hindu Religious Institutions and Endowments Act of 1966.  Under this Act the Board of Trustees consisted of not more than 11 members to be appointed by the State Government.

3- members of the State legislature

1- from the Scheduled Castes

1- Women

They were to hold office for three-year terms and decide upon the purposes for which the temple funds were to be used. 

The Act, like others for temples in the state, placed the Tirumala temple entirely under state control and, by extension, under the Endowments Department.

The administration was left to a small committee of management, consisting of a Chairman and two other members also nominated by the State Government plus the Commissioner of  the Endowments Department and the Executive officer of the Devasthanams.  It also provided for the appointment of a Financial adviser and a Chief Accounts Officer. 

In 1979, the 1966 Act was again rolled back and via a  new Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Act, the temple administration was vested to a committee consisting of Executive officer, Chairman and two other members nominated by Government of Andhra Pradesh.

Present-Day Scenario

The temples today have been finally  brought  under the First Schedule 2 of the Act 30 of 1987. The Board of Trustees is constituted by members appointed by the government every once in two years. Besides the Chairperson, the board has 10 non-official members, including three Members of the Legislative Assembly (one of whom is a woman and another a member of the Scheduled Castes), belonging to the ruling party. The Principal Secretary, Revenue (Endowments) Department, A.P. government, and the Commissioner of Endowments (both Indian Administrative Service officers) and the Chairman of the Tirupati Urban Development Authority (TUDA) are its ex-officio members. 

The executive head of the TTD is its Executive Officer, again a senior IAS officer who is also the Member-Secretary of the board. He has under him two Joint Executive Officers of the IAS cadre, one based at Tirumala and the other at Tirupati. They are further assisted by the Chief Vigilance and Security Officer, Conservator of Forests, Financial Advisor & Chief Accounts Officer, and Chief Engineer. Besides, there are officials to look after the different branches of administration.

The Act explicitly mandates that every Trustee needs to necessarily  profess the Hindu religion. However, both the Act and its rules fail to specify if a non-Hindu can be employed in various posts pertaining to the temple. However in 1986 and further in 2007, the government issued an order banning the recruitment of non-Hindus. This topic still remains a political hotcake with most recently 44 non-Hindus sacked from employment by the TTD, approaching the Supreme Court.

Controversies have also emerged pertaining to two sets of advertisements that were printed on the reverse side of tickets sold to passengers on state government buses plying between Tirupati and Tirumala. One set of advertisements was about a "holy Jerusalem tour" for Christians of Andhra Pradesh. The other spoke about Haj pilgrimage offered by the Andhra Pradesh government to Muslims.

Petitions have also been filed in order to bring the TTD under the ambit of the RTI Act. In a quest to free the temple from governmental control Subramanian Swamy has approached the Andhra Pradesh High Court. Consequently, a CAG audit of the TTD’s accounts has also been mandated.

However, the question as old as time remains- should the state control Venkataramana’s abode in the first place? Who would take over control once power is divested? These questions have no easy answers. 

Venkataramana is also called Sat-chit-ananda, the embodiment of pure bliss, the kind that continues to make devotees flock to the Sheshadri peak of the Eastern Ghats just as they have been doing since a millenia (if not more).  Regardless of who administers what, Kubera’s debt, Thinappa’s legacy, his charisma, his enchantment and the unbreakable devotion of his devotees will continue to endure for generations to come. 

Venkataramana Govinda…..Govinda!